PAST  AND  PRESENT 


IN  THE 

AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL 

HISTORY 


THE   HORSE 

PAST  AND  PRESENT 

BY 

HENRY  F AIRFIELD  OSBORN 


THE  HORSE 


IN  THE 

AMERICAN  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL 

HISTORY  AND  IN  THE 

ZOOLOGICAL  PARK 


NEW  YORK 

THE  IEVING  PEESS 
1913 


01 


THE  HORSE:  PAST  AND  PRESENT 

In  1891  the  American  Museum  began  its  long  series  of  explorations 
and  studies  upon  the  evolution  of  the  horse.  It  now  contains  the 
most  complete  collection  of  fossil  horses  in  the  world;  also  a  very 
remarkable  collection  of  mounted  skeletons  and  models  of  modern 
horses,  including  both  wild  and  domestic  breeds. 

The  ancestry  of  the  horse  has  been  traced  back  through  successive 
stages  represented  by  fossil  skeletons  to  small  progenitors  with  four 
toes  on  the  fore  feet  and  three  on  the  hind  feet,  with  short-crowned, 
simple  teeth  and  small  brain,  but  always  possessed  of  great  relative 
speed. 

What  may  be  called  the  fossil  breeds  are  found  to  be  specialized  as 
are  modern  breeds  into  exceedingly  swift  running  as  well  as  into  slow- 
moving  types,  into  giant  horses  exceeding  the  very  largest  existing 
percherons,  and  into  diminutive  horses  smaller  even  than  the  most 
diminutive  Shetland.  The  comparison  of  fossil  and  living  types  is 
therefore  most  interesting  and  instructive. 

An  epitome  of  the  transformation  of  the  hind  leg  from  the  hock 
joint  down  shows  the  gradual  increase  in  size  of  the  median  hoof  and 
the  consequent  diminution  of  the  side  hoofs  which  are  slowly  raised 
above  the  ground  through  a  very  long  period,  hanging  at  the  sides  as 
dew  claws  but  finally  withdrawn  up  the  sides  of  the  cannon  bone  as 
the  "  splints." 

The  first  important  step  in  this  collection  was  in  1894  when  the  very 
ancient  four-toed  horse  of  the  Wind  River  mountains  (Eohippus  ven- 
ticolus}  was  presented  by  Mr.  Cornelius  Vanderbilt  and  others. 

In  1900-1903,  three  annual  expeditions  were  fitted  out  on  a  gen- 
erous scale  especially  to  collect  the  ancestors  of  the  horse;  this  was 


284464 


through  the  gift  of  Mr.  William  C.  Whitney,  also  a  Trustee  of  the 
Museum.  These  expeditions  were  successful  in  securing  several  com- 
plete three-toed  horses. 

The  direct  ancestor  of  the  modern  horse  is  still  to  be  discovered;  it 
is  the  one  link  still  missing.  The  Museum  is  planning  for  continued 
search  in  the  West,  especially  in  Texas,  South  Dakota,  and  Nebraska, 
where  it  is  hoped  this  link  may  be  discovered.  It  is  also  preparing  to 
publish  a  full  history  of  the  horse  from  the  earliest  times  to  the  present. 


GENERAL    CONTRIBUTORS 

Among  the  present  and  former  contributors  to  the  American 
Museum  explorations  and  collections  showing  the  history  of  this 
noblest  of  living  quadrupeds  are  the  following: 

CORNELIUS  VANDERBILT   .  in  the  year  .  1894 

WILLIAM  C.  WHITNEY      .  in  the  years  .  1900,  1902,  1903 

HENRY  FAIRFIELD  OSBORN  .  «    "       "  .  1891-1912 

ARTHUR  CURTISS  JAMES  .        «    "       "  .  1906,  1907 

CLEVELAND  H.  DODGE      .  in  the  year  .  1909 

GEORGE  J.  GOULD     .        .  in  the  years  .  1906-1909 

FRANK  K.  STURGIS  .  .  1907-1913 

PERCY  R.  PYNE         .        .  in  the  year  .  1906 

J.  PIERPONT  MORGAN      .       in  the  years     .     1904-1913 
donor  of  models,  restorations  and  illustra- 
tions of  extinct  horses. 


[6] 


SPECIAL  CONTRIBUTORS  OF  RECENT  HORSES 

JAMES  R.  KEENE      ....       in  the  year      1906 
donor  of  the  skeleton  and  cost  of  mount- 
ing of  "Sysonby." 

RANDOLPH    HUNTINGTON      .          .         in  the  year     1904 
donor  of  the  skeleton  of  the  Arab  "  Nimr." 

His  GRACE  THE  DUKE  OF  BEDFORD,         in  the  year     1912 
donor  of  the  skeletons  of  two  wild  or  Prze- 
valski  horses  from  his  herd  at  Woburn, 
England. 

SIR  WILFRED  LAWSON  BLUNT          .         in  the  year     1907 
donor  of  skull  of  an  Arab. 

GEORGE  EHRET        ....         in  the  year      1901 
skeleton  of  the  Draught  Horse. 

ZOOLOGICAL  SOCIETY  OF  NEW  YORK 
skeletons  of  Zebras  and 
Wild  Asses     .        .     in  the  years    1906,  1911,  1912 

WARREN  DELANO      .        .      "     "     "  1912,  1913 

Gift  of  a  Norwegian  Pony,  and  of  a  Hinny,  or  hybrid  be- 
tween stallion  and  ass. 


The  following  persons  have  also  contributed  from  time  to  time  to 
the  growth  of  the  collection: 

WATSON  B.   DICKERMAN 
E.  B.  SOUTHWICK 
HOMER  DAVENPORT 
THOMAS  F.  WHITE  COMPANY 
GRANT  STRINGER 

[7] 


TYPES  OF  MODEKN  HOKSES 

The  collection  of  types  of  modern  horses  is  designed  to  show,  first, 
the  highest  standards  produced  by  breeding;  second,  the  mechanical 
perfection  of  the  skeleton  of  the  horse  in  the  various  extremes  of  motion 
and  action,  chiefly  as  studied  through  instantaneous  photography.  Mr. 
S.  H.  Chubb  has  been  in  charge  of  the  preparation  of  this  series  since 
1901,  and  has  reached  a  standard  of  truth  and  artistic  perfection  never 
before  attained. 

The  domesticated  types  which  have  already  been  completed  or 
planned  are  the  following: 

THE  ARAB,  SOURCE  OF  ALL  THE  THOROUGHBRED  STOCK 
THE  REARING  HORSE  IN  COMPARISON  WITH  THE  SKELETON  OF  MAN 
THE  DRAUGHT  HORSE  IN  THE  ACT  OF  PULLING  A  HEAVY  LOAD 
THE  RACE  HORSE,  TYPIFIED  BY  "SYSONBY"  AT  FULL  SPEED 

THE  STANDIM;  POSE,  TYPIFIED  BY  A  GIANT  HORSE  OF  THE  PERCH- 
ERON  BREED  FROM  OHIO,  IN  STANDING  POSITION 

THE  GRAZIM;  POSE,  TYPIFIED  BY  THE  DIMINUTIVE  SHETLAND  "  HIGH- 
LAND CHIEFTAIN" 

THE  TROTTING  HORSE,  TO  BE  REPRESENTED  BY  SUCH  A  TYPE  AS  "Lou 
DILLON" 

It  is  proposed  to  complete  this  series  by  the  addition  of  mounted 
skeletons  of  the  following  types  of  wild  horses,  asses,  and  zebras. 

THE  PRZEWALSKY  HORSE,  FROM  THE  DESERT  OF  GOBI,  THE  ONLY  EXIST- 
ING SPECIES  OF  WILD  HORSE 

THE  GREVY'S  ZEBRA,  FROM  ABYSSINIA 

THE  MOUNTAIN  ZEBRA,  FROM  SOUTH  AFRICA 

THE  BURCHELL  OR  GRANT  ZEBRA,  FROM  CENTRAL  AFRICA 

THE  WILD  Ass  (PROGENITOR  OF  THE  DOMESTIC  Ass),  FROM  ABYSSINIA 

THE  KIANG  OR  ASIATIC  Ass,  FROM  CENTRAL  ASIA 

[8] 


THE   ARAB 

The  Arab  is  famous  both  in  itself  and  as  the  chief  source  from  which 
the  English  thoroughbred  was  derived  through  the  "Byerley  Turk"  and 
the  "Barley  Arabian."  All  the  fineness  and  all  the  quality  of  modern 
horses  are  derived  from  this  ancestral  Arab  strain,  although  the  thor- 
oughbred was  largely  modified  originally  by  crossing  of  other  stocks. 


ARABIAN  STALLION  •'  v'l? 

\ 


IX  POSE  OF  WATCHING  A  HEKD 


The  skeleton  of  "Ximr"  was  presented  by  Mr.  Randolph  Hunting- 
ton.  Oyster  Bay,  L.  I.,  February,  1904,  and  mounted  by  Mr.  S.  H. 
Chubb  in  1906.  "Ximr1'  was  a  pure-bred  Arabian  stallion,  sired  by 
the  desert-bred  Arabian  "  Kismet,"  a  horse  celebrated  for  an  unbroken 
record  of  victories  as  a  race  horse  in  India.  The  skeleton  of  "Kismet" 
was  preserved  for  some  time  by  a  New  York  veterinarian  but  was 
unfortunately  destroyed. 

In  the  skeleton  of  the  Arab  both  the  head  and  tail  are  carried  high 
when  the  animal  is  animated,  and  in  this  mount  of  "Ximr"  all  the 
special  Aral)  characters  may  be  observed  as  follows: 

1.  Skull  short,  but  broad  between  the  eye  sockets. 

2.  Kye  sockets  high  and  prominent,  giving  the  eyes  a  wide  range 
of  vision. 

3.  Facial  profile,  or  forehead,  concave. 

4.  Jaw  slender  in  front,  deep  and  wide  set  above  the  throat. 

.">.  Hound-ribbed  chest,  short  back  with  only  five  [ribless  or]  lumbar 
vertebra1,  well  "  ribbed  up." 

6.  A   horizontally   placed   pelvis   (a  speed   character)   and   a  very 
high  tail  region,  with  few  tail  vertebrae. 

7.  A  complete  shaft  of  the  ulna,  or  small  bone  of  the  forearm. 

8.  Long  and  slender  cannon  bones,  and  long,  sloping  pasterns. 


THK    KKARIMJ    HORSK    IN    COMPARISON    WITH 
THK    SKKLKTOX    OF    MAX 

The  "breaking  of  the  horse"  by  man  about  15,000  years  ago  was 
a  turning  point  in  human  history,  and  the  adoption  of  the  horse  as  a 
means  of  transportation,  as  an  aid  in  agriculture,  and  as  a  fighting 
animal  in  war,  have  been  factors  of  the  greatest  importance  in  the 
evolution  of  the  human  race. 

This  splendid  mount  is  part  of  (he  gift  of  t  he  lale  William  ( \  Whitney. 
The  mount  is  faithfully  worked  out  from  instantaneous  photographs, 

10  ' 


NecK 
Vertebrae 


Vertebrae 


y'Finqer 


-ELBOW 


ANKLE 


Comparison  of  the 
BONES    AND  JOINTS 


HORSE  AND   MAN. 


THE    BREAKING    OF   THE    HORSE 


SKELETON  OF  THE  HORSE  AND  OF  MAN  PLACED  IN  A  SIMILAR 
POSITION  FOR  COMPARISON 


and  is  suggestive  of  the  BREAKING  AND  TRAINING  OF  THE  HORSE  BY 
MAN.  The  rearing  action  expresses  unwilling  subjection,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  man — as  if  holding  a  bridle — of  intelligent  control. 

These  two  skeletons  are  so  mounted  by  Air.  Chubb  under  Professor 
Osborn's  direction  as  to  facilitate  comparison  of  the  horse  skeleton  and 
the  human  skeleton,  limb  by  limb,  bone  by  bone.  It  will  be  observed 
that  the  left  fore  foot  of  the  horse  and  the  left  arm  of  the  man  are 
extended  forward  and  upward,  while  the  right  fore  leg  and  the  right 
arm  are  bent.  Similarly,  the  right  hind  leg  of  the  horse  may  be 
compared  indirectly  with  the  right  leg  of  the  man. 

The  human  skeleton  is  that  of  a  Prussian,  selected  for  its  fine  pro- 
portions and  exceptional  height. 

This  mount  is  one  of  the  greatest  educational  value  and  interest  in 
the  whole  series. 


THE    RACE   HORSE  "SYSONBY' 

"Sysonby"  was  one  of  America's  most  famous  race  horses.  He  was 
foaled  February  7,  1902,  at  Mr.  James  R.  Keene's  Castleton  stud  in 
Kentucky,  a  few  months  after  the  importation  from  England  of  his 
dam,  "Optime,"  his  sire  being  the  English  bred  "Melton."  His  record 
is  one  of  the  most  brilliant  in  the  history  of  American  horse  racing. 

[12] 


He  won  a  remarkable  series  of  victories  between  his  first  race  at 
Brighton  Beach,  July  14,  1904,  as  a  two-year  old,  and  his  untimely 
death  at  four  years  (June  17,  1906).  The  skeleton  and  its  mounting 
was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  the  late  James  R.  Keene. 


SKELETON  OF  «  SYSONBY,"  PRESENTED  BY  JAMES  E.  KEENE 

BEING  MOUNTED  TO  SHOW  A  PHASE  IN  THE 

STRIDE  OF  THE  E [INNING  HORSE 


This  mount  is  based  on  studies  by  S.  H.  Chubb  made  from  direct 
observation  and  from  the  instantaneous  photographs  of  Muybridge, 
Hemment  and  Chubb.  The  position  is  that  taken  the  moment  after 
the  right  fore  foot  has  left  the  ground,  and  the  right  "knee,"  or  carpus, 
is  beginning  to  bend;  the  succeeding  foot-falls  in  order  are  the  left 
hind  foot,  the  right  hind  foot,  the  left  fore  foot,  and  the  right  fore  foot. 
The  full  length  of  one  complete  stride  is  about  26  feet. 

SYSONBY. — Motion  of  the  Hip  and  Shoulder  and  Limbs.  At  this 
instant  the  hind  quarters  and  limbs  are  lifted  perceptibly  higher  than 
the  shoulders,  and  from  a  rear  view  it  will  be  seen  that  while  the  hind 
feet  are  thrust  forward  at  this  great  height  from  the  ground,  they  are 
widely  separated  from  each  other  so  as  to  avoid  striking  the  fore  legs. 
A  moment  later  the  shoulders  will  be  lifted  by  the  push  of  the  fore  foot 
higher  than  the  hind  quarters,  then  the  hind  feet  will  move  toward 
the  median  line  and  strike  the  ground  and  the  fore  feet  will  move 
forward  out  of  the  way  of  the  hind. 

[13] 


SYSONBY. — Motion  of  the  Back  Bone.  The  back  bone  is  slightly 
arched  to  help  draw  together  the  fore  and  hind  limbs  and  feet,  and 
thus  lengthen  the  stride  and  bring  the  back  muscles  into  play.  When 
viewed  from  above,  the  back  bone  is  also  observed  to  be  curved  a  little 
to  the  right,  owing  to  the  forward  position  of  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
pelvis  and  of  the  left  hind  limb;  this  also  lengthens  and  gives  power 
to  the  stride  as  the  back  bone  is  straightened. 


THE    DRAUGHT   HORSE 

The  horse  of  the  Percheron  breed  from  which  this  mount  was  made 
was  presented  to  the  Museum  by  Mr.  George  Ehret.  The  mounting- 
was  completed  by  Mr.  S.  H.  Chubb  in  the  laboratories  of  the  Museum 
in  the  year  1903,  from  his  own  photographs  and  studies  supple- 
mented by  the  famous  works  of  Muybridge.  In  direct  contrast  to  the 
skeleton  of  "Sysonby, "  this  animal  was  mounted  in  order  to  show  the 
development  of  power  and  slow  movement  in  the  Percheron  breed. 

The  skeleton  has  been  so  mounted  as  to  show  the  position  of  the 
bones  when  the  animal  is  drawing  a  heavy  load.  The  visitor  will 
imagine  that  the  shoulders  are  thrust  against  a  collar,  upon  which  the 
horse  is  pushing  with  all  its  energy.  Note  that  the  head  and  body  are 


lowered,  three  of  the  feet  are  resting  upon  the  ground.  At  the  same 
time  the  hind  limbs  are  doing  the  greater  amount  of  work,  the  fore 
limbs  acting  chiefly  as  supports  although  entering  into  the  thrust  so 
far  as  possible;  a  portion  of  the  weight  of  the  body  has  been  thrown 
into  the  collar.  A  feature  which  is  not  shown  in  this  photograph  is 
the  curvature  of  the  backbone  under  the  strain. 


THE  DRAUGHT  HORSE  IN  ACTION 
Mount,  the  Gift  of  William  C.  Whitney 


GIANT   DRAUGHT   HORSE 

The  draught  horse  is  derived  from  what  is  known  as  the  Northern 
or  Forest  stock,  a  type  of  wild  horse  quite  distinct  from  that  which 
gave  rise  to  the  Arab  and  the  Thoroughbred.  The  fertile  fields  and 
limestone  soil  of  Kansas  have  exerted  the  remarkable  influence  on 
imported  draught  horses  seen  in  the  occasional  appearance  of  giant 
horses  arising  as  "sports,"  too  large  and  clumsy  for  economic  service. 

[15] 


This  enormous  animal  may  be  contrasted  with  the  most  diminutive 
breed  of  modern  horses,  namely,  the  Shetlands,  from  an  example  espe- 
cially bred  and  dwarfed  for  diminutive  size. 


GIANT  DRAUGHT  HOUSE  FROM  OHIO  AND 


SHETLAND  PONY  OF  SCOTLAND 


These  two  skeletons,  photographed  together  for  purposes  of  com- 
parison, show  the  extremes  of  size  produced  by  breeding  and  the  favor- 
able or  unfavorable  action  of  climate  which  are  to  be  compared  with 
the  extremes  of  speed  shown  in  the  Race  Horse  and  Draught  Horse. 

The  contrasts  in  size  are  as  follows: 


GIANT   DRAUGHT   HORSE 

Height  at  shoulders       6  ft.  1  in.  (18J  hands) 
Weight  in  life  2,370  Ibs. 

Bulk  of  femur  (thigh-bone)  188  cu.  in. 


SHETLAND    PONY 

2  feet  9£  in.  (8£  hands) 
170  Ibs. 
13J  cu.  in. 


The  resting  position  chosen  in  1909  for  the  mounting  of  the  giant 
Draught  Horse  is  one  of  inaction  and  is  designed  to  show  the  relaxa- 
tion of  the  body  and  the  mechanical  interlocking  of  the  knee-cap  in 
the  left  hind  limb  to  release  the  muscles  from  the  strain  of  the  weight. 
This  peculiar  function  of  the  patella  (knee-cap)  is  shown  in  the  left 
knee-joint,  or  stifle.  While  the  joint  is  extended  to  support  the  ani- 
mal's weight,  the  patella  rests  on  the  projecting  process  of  the  femur 
so  that  the  knee  is  locked  in  the  extended  position  by  a  very  strong 
ligament  which  holds  the  patella  a  fixed  distance  from  the  tibia  below, 
thus  sustaining  the  weight  required  of  it  with  comparatively  little 
muscular  exertion.  Thus  almost  the  entire  weight  of  the  hind  quar- 
ters is  supported  on  the  extended  left  leg,  while  the  right  hind  leg  rests 
in  a  more  flexed  position  and  hangs  perfectly  lax.  The  pelvis  also 
seems  to  hang,  as  it  were,  from  the  left  hip  joint,  tilting  very  much  to 
the  right  and  twisting  slightly  the  vertebral  column. 


SHETLAND  IN    GRAZING    POSITION 

This  Shetland  is  a  fully  grown  animal  although  the  height  at  the 
shoulders  is  only  33%  inches.  At  the  time  the  animal  was  purchased,  in 
June,  1902,  in  Scotland,  through  the  kindness  of  Professor  J.  Cossar 
Ewart  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  it  was  regarded  as  the  most  diminu- 
tive Shetland  pony  which  had  been  bred  in  Great  Britain.  Somewhat 
smaller  Shetlands  have  since  been  produced  by  selection  and  in-breeding. 

The  modern  Shetland  pony  has  been  produced  by  careful  selection 
and  breeding  of  a  race  of  domestic  or  half  wild  horses  originally  dwarfed 
by  unfavorable  surroundings,  inhabiting  the  bleak  and  barren  Shet- 
land Islands,  with  their  cold,  damp  climate  and  restricted  range.  The 
Percheron,  on  the  other  hand,  bred  to  the  plow  and  cart  in  the  rich  and 
fertile  lands  of  Normandy,  has  been  improved  by  favorable  conditions 
and  by  selection  for  size  and  strength,  and  is  the  largest  of  the  domestic 
breeds  of  horses;  the  Shetland  being  the  smallest. 

[17] 


SHETLAND  PONY  "HIGHLAND  CHIEFTAIN"  MOUNTED  IN  THE 

GEAZING  POSITION 
This  skeleton  was  presented  by  William  C.  Whitney  in  June,  1902. 

This  special  study  shows  the  position  of  the  limbs  of  a  horse  in  the 
action  of  grazing.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  downward  reach  of  the  head 
and  the  slow,  lax  step,  modify  the  position  of  almost  every  bone  in  the 
body.  The  vertebral  column  is  considerably  arched  in  the  dorsal 
region,  thus  assisting  in  the  downward  curve  of  the  neck  and  at  the 
same  time  tilting  the  angle  of  the  pelvis  a  few  degrees  toward  the  per- 
pendicular, increasing  the  length  of  the  hind  limbs  and  tilting  the  body 
toward  the  head.  The  head  being  turned  well  to  the  right,  there  is 
a  very  slight  curve  toward  the  left  in  the  anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal 
vertebrae,  and  a  slight  curve  to  the  right  in  the  lumbar  vertebrae  owing 
to  the  backward  position  of  the  right  hind  foot.  The  weight  of  the  body 
falls  on  the  right  front  and  the  left  hind  foot,  bringing  them  both  very 
near  the  median  line,  and  also  modifying  the  position  of  the  scapula 
and  elevating  the  left  side  of  the  pelvis.  A  little  below  the  knee  a  very 
small,  hair-like  bone  may  be  seen,  which  represents  the  shaft  of  the 

almost  extinct  fibula. 

[IS  | 


**    , 


Position  Selected  as  Typical  of  the  American  Trotter,  all  four 
feet  raised  from  the  ground 

THREE   MODELS   OF   THE    HORSE    IX  ACTION 

These  models,  executed  by  Erwin  S.  Christman,  one  of  the  Museum's 
staff  of  artists,  are  designed  to  illustrate  the  action  of  the  horse  in  the 
various  phases  of  the  walk,  the  gallop,  and  the  trot,  the  latter  still 
awaiting  completion.  The  models  are  all  to  the  same  scale,  of  one 
sixth  natural  size,  so  that  a  contrast  is  afforded  both  of  the  differences  of 
size  and  weight  and  the  differences  of  proportion. 

1.  THE   RACE   HORSE   "SYSONBY" 

This  model  is  designed  upon  an  extremely  careful  study  of  the 
skeletal  action  and  is  based  upon  absolute  measurements  of  the  differ- 
ent limb  segments.  It  represents  one  of  the  extreme  phases  of  the  run 
in  which  three  of  the  limbs  are  folded  and  the  fourth,  in  this  case  the 
right  fore  leg,  has  just  left  the  ground.  The  artist  was  assisted  by  an 
instantaneous  photograph  of  "Sysonby"  and  the  former  owner  of  this 
great  racer,  the  late  Mr.  James  R.  Keene,  pronounced  the  model  an 

[19] 


absolute  likeness  of  "Sysonby"  as  he  appeared  at  his  highest  speed.  It 
corrects  several  of  the  false  traditions  not  only  in  regard  to  the  limbs  but 
also  in  regard  to  the  position  of  the  head,  which  is  never  extended  out 
straight  as  represented  in  the  old  prints. 

2.  TWO   PHASES   OF   THE   GALLOP 

In  this  representation  of  two  phases  of  the  gallop,  by  Mr.  Erwin  S. 
( 'Imstman,  we  have  a  study  in  which  a  more  artistic  effect  is  aimed  at, 
yet  the  scientific  anatomic  purpose  is  served  by  the  fact  that  the  two 
horses  represent  what  may  be  called  the  two  extreme  phases  of  the 
gallop,  in  one  of  which  three  of  the  limbs  are  folded  up  underneath 
the  body,  in  the  other  of  which  three  of  the  limbs  are  at  their  maximum 
extension  beyond  the  perpendicular  of  the  body. 


3.  THE   DRAUGHT   HORSE 

The  draught  horse  similarly  is  a  very  careful  study  based  upon  the 
skeleton  of  the  draught  horse  in  action.  It  represents  the  opposite 
extreme  of  the  " Sysonby  "  stride  since  three  out  of  the  four  li-nbs  are  on 
the  ground  and  the  fourth,  the  left  hind  leg,  is  just  being  raised  in  the 
forward  step.  The  head  is  extended  forward  as  far  as  possible  so  as  to 
balance  the  weight,  because  the  horse  is  pushing  and  also  leaning  his  entire 
weight  against  the  collar  so  as  to  assist  the  muscles  as  much  as  possible. 

I  20 


MODEL  OF  "SYSONBY" 


TWO  PHASES  OF  THE  GALLOP 

[21] 


THE    FOSSIL    SERIES 

The  horse  from  the  very  earliest  geologic  times,  roughly  estimated 
at  two  and  a  half  million  years,  all  the  period  since  the  birth  of  the  Rocky 
Mountain  system,  has  been  the  aristocrat  among  quadrupeds  in  point  of 
speed  and  delicacy  and  beauty  of  construction.  This  statement  is 
borne  out  by  the  comparison  in  the  American  Museum  exhibitions  of 
the  little  coursing  hound,  the  whippet,  and  the  original  four-toed  horse, 
in  which  the  proportions  of  the  different  segments  of  the  limbs  are  seen 
to  be  strikingly  similar;  in  fact,  the  Eohippus  probably  had  a  little  more 
speed,  indicated  in  the  elongate  structure  of  its  hind  feet,  than  the 
whippet. 


SKULL  OF  MODERN    HORSE  AND  MODEL  OF  EOHIPPUS 

It  is  very  difficult  to  realize  the  multiple  structure  of  the  foot  and 
the  diminutive  size  of  these  very  ancient  horses  until  a  life-size  model 
of  one  is  placed  beside  the  skull  of  a  modern  draught  horse,  when  it  is 

[22  | 


observed  that  Eohippus  and  the  skull  are  of  about  the  same  length; 

also  that  one  feature  of  equine  evolution  is  a  continuous  increase  in  size. 

This  principle  of  continuous  increase  in  size  is  graphically  displayed 

in  the  wonderful  SERIES  EOCENE  TO  OLIGOCENE  representing 

~ffa^~ 
the  first  five  or  six  stages  in  the  evolution  of  the  horse,  where  tm-ee 

principles  are  at  once  apparent:  first,  increase  in  size;  second,  increase 
in  length  and  delicacy  of  limb;  third,  elongation  of  the  limb  below 
the  knee  joint  and  hock  joint;  fourth,  disappearance  of  the  outer 
hoofs,  and  concentration  on  the  median  hoof  which  now  begins  to 
rapidly  increase  in  size. 


SKELETONS  OF  WHIPPETT  AXD  OF  EOHIPPUS 

These  steps  are  wonderfully  displayed  in  the  series  of  horses  begin- 
ning with  Eohippus  on  the  left  and  ending  with  Mesohippus  on  the 
right,  representing  a  transformation  which  occupied  perhaps  a  period 
of  eight  hundred  thousand  to  one  million  years,  through  natural  proc- 
esses of  breeding  and  the  increasingly  severe  competition  of  these 

[  23  ] 


animals  with  many  carnivorous  enemies.  The  Mesohippus  is  already 
a  superb  mechanism,  more  delicate  in  its  proportions  than  any  modern 
race  horse  and  probably  equal  in  fleetness  for  short  distances. 


.MOBIL   Of  FOMJLOIO  H0m___ 

SERIES  EOCENE  TO  OLIGOCENE 

Remains  of  hundreds  of  these  animals  are  found  in  the  beds  of  old 
watercourses  which  traversed  the  region  now  politically  divided  into 
South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  and  Montana.  The  recapture  of 
a  complete  skeleton  from  these  ancient  watercourses  and  floodplain 
basins  is  a  very  rare  event.  The  rocks  have,  however,  yielded  to  the 
persistent  search  of  the  very  able  corps  of  explorers  engaged  in  the 
work,  most  of  whom  are  natives  of  our  Western  States.  Especially 
we  may  mention  James  W.  Gidley  of  South  Dakota,  who  was  in  charge 
of  the  Whitney  explorations  for  three  years,  and  Barnum  Brown  of 
Kansas.  Recently  Mr.  Walter  Granger  of  Vermont  has  with  great 
success  taken  up  the  search  in  the  Rockies  for  the  oldest  American 
horses.  These  remains  are  generally  found  in  a  very  fragmentary  con- 
dition; they  have  been  repaired  and  set  up  by  Mr.  Adam  Hermann, 

head  preparator,  and  his  assistants. 

[24] 


Nature  has  produced  even  more  distinct  breeds  than  those  pro- 
duced by  man,  or  rather  greater  extremes  of  structure  and  of  habit. 
Thus  very  early  in  equine  history  among  the  race  of  Mesohippus  the 
so-called  FOREST  HORSE  appeared.  These  horses  browsed  on  shrubs 
and  soft  plants  rather  than  grazed,  and  seeking  this  kind  of  food  in 
soft  and  swampy  ground  are  distinguished  by  broad,  spreading  feet 
with  three  hoofs,  and  by  short-crowned  teeth  resembling  those  of  a 
tapir.  These  animals  lived  for  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  and 
found  their  way  even  into  western  Asia. 


SERIES  EOCENE  TO  OLIGOCENE 

In  the  other  extreme  is  the  high  speed  mechanism  of  the  grazing 
or  DESERT  HORSE  which  has  limbs  as  finely  drawn  as  those  of  the 
existing  Virginia  deer  and  was  undoubtedly  an  animal  capable  of  very 
high  speed.  This  type  is  represented  by  Neohipparion  whitneyi,  or 
"  Whitney's  New  Hipparion,"  the  name  having  been  given  in  honor  of 
the  late  Mr.  William  C.  Whitney.  This  is  the  most  perfect  skeleton  of 
a  fossil  horse  ever  discovered,  so  perfect  in  preservation  that  even  the 
cartilages  of  the  ribs  are  fossilized  and  preserved  as  well  as  all  the 

[25] 


delicate  vertebrae  to  the  very  tip  of  the  tail.  It  was  found  near  the 
Rosebud  Indian  Agency  by  Mr.  H.  F.  Wells  of  the  Whitney  expedition 
sent  out  by  the  Museum  in  1902,  and  was  one  of  the  finest  products  of 
the  whole  series  of  explorations  conducted  under  this  fund. 

The  skeleton  is  that  of  a  mare,  as  indicated  by  the  small  size  of 
the  tusks.     With  the  mare  in  the  sandy  deposit  were  found  the  skeletons 


SKELETON  AND  BE8TOBATIOK  OF  THE  FOREST  HORSE 

HTPOHIPPU8 

[26] 


of  four  younger  animals,  'obably  colts  which  had  sought  refuge  from 
a  sand  or  electric  storm  or  cloudburst  with  the  mare  and  were  killed 
and  buried  at  the  same  time.  The  head  is  exceptionally  large,  the 
teeth  are  long  and  highly  effective  for  the  grazing  habit,  while  the  limbs 
are  excessively  light  and  delicate  in  proportion. 


SKELETON  AND  RESTORATION  OF  THE  DESERT  HORSE 
NEOHIPPARION  WHITNEYI 

[27] 


Neither  of  these  types,  the  Forest,  the  Desert  type,  or  the  Hipparion, 
are  known  to  be  directly  ancestral  to  the  true  modern  horse  Equus,  and 
one  of  the  gaps  still  remaining  for  our  exploration  is  to  discover  the 
immediate  ancestors  of  the  true  horse.  It  has  long  been  known  that 
wild  horses  of  great  variety  covered  our  country  long  before  the  period 
of  the  Spaniards  and  probably  long  before  the  period  of  the  first  appear- 
ance of  man.  The  natural  causes  of  the  extinction  of  these  splendid 
native  races  are  still  unknown.  Not  improbably  these  animals  were 
swept  away  by  an  epidemic. 


EQUUS  SCOTTT  AND  EOHIPPUS 
First  and  last  stages  in  the  Evolution  of  the  Horse  in  America 

Up  to  the  time  of  our  exploration  only  fragments  of  these  native  horses 
had  been  found,  together  with  a  single  fragmentary  skull.  Thus  one  of 
the  most  important  discoveries  made  in  the  whole  twenty-two  years 
of  exploration  was  the  finding  of  remains  of  a  herd  of  true  horses  near 
Rock  Creek,  Briscoe  County,  Texas,  by  James  W.  Gidley,  of  the 
Museum  expedition  of  1899.  The  herd  consisted  of  seven  skeletons, 

I  28  I 


most  of  which  were  nearly  complete.  Other  skeletons  have  recently 
been  found  as  a  remnant  of  the  same  herd.  No  other  such  complete 
single  find  has  ever  been  made  in  all  the  exploration ,  covering  fifty 
years,  of  our  Western  States  and  Territories. 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  HOCK  JOINT 
Showing  conversion  of  Lateral  Toes  into  Splints 

The  animal  known  as  Scott's  horse  or  Equus  scotti,  represents  the 
last  stage  in  the  evolution  of  the  horse  of  North  America  just  before 
it  became  extinct  in  this  country.  It  is  in  every  respect  a  horse, 
although  a  badly  proportioned  one,  the  head  being  large  and  the  hip 
girdle  short  and  clumsy.  It  differs  from  the  domestic  horse  in  the 
heavy,  deep,  zebra-like  skull,  compact  body  and  smaller  legs  and  feet. 
Like  the  modern  horse  it  has  only  a  single  hoof  on  the  fore  and  hind 
feet,  while  the  side  toes  are  represented  by  the  "  splints." 


[29] 


THE  WILD  HORSES,  ASSES,  ZEBRAS 

IN  THE 

ZOOLOGICAL  PARK 

The  presence  of  a  great  Zoological  Park  in  New  York,  under  the 
direction  of  the  New  York  Zoological  Society,  will  render  possible  in 
future  years  the  completion  of  the  HISTORY  OF  THE  HORSE  through  the 
exhibition  and  study  of  all  the  wild  living  types. 

A  complete  list  of  the  wild  equines  now  or  very  recently  shown  in  the 
Park,  and  the  principal  geographic  range  of  each,  is  as  follows: 

WILD  HORSES. 

PRZEWALSKY  HORSES,  Equus  przewalskii.     DESERT  OF  GOBI,  CENTRAL 
ASIA. 

WILD  ASSES. 

PERSIAN  WILD  Ass,  Equus  hemippus.     DESERTS  OF  S.  PERSIA,  AND 
ARABIA. 

KIANG,  Equus  hemionus.  N.  ASIA;  TRANS-BAIKAL  REGION. 

ZEBRAS. 

GREVY  ZEBRA,  Equus  grevyi.     ABYSSINIA  AND  BR.  E.  AFRICA. 
GRANT'S  ZEBRA,  Equus  granti.     BRITISH  EAST  AFRICA. 
CHAPMAN  ZEBRA,  Equus  burchelli  chapmani.     CENTRAL  SOUTH  AFRICA. 
MOUNTAIN  ZEBRA,  Equus  zebra.     CAPE  COLONY,  S.  AFRICA. 

The  Przewalsky  Wild  Horse,  otherwise  known  as  the  Steppe  horse, 
and  nearest  relative  of  the  domestic  horse  ,  is  readily  distinguished 
from  all  modern  domesticated  breeds  by  the  entire  absence  of  the 
forelock  and  by  the  fact  that  the  mane  rises  along  the  neck  like  a  crest 
exactly  as  in  the  zebras  and  asses,  and  does  not  fall  over  on  one  side,  as 
in  the  domestic  horse.  The  large  head,  rather  short  and  truly  horselike 

[80] 


ears,  small  and  inexpressive  eyes,  and  light  buff-colored  muzzle  are  well 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  body  is  uniformly  colored,  with  a  dark  brown 
dorsal  stripe.  Sometimes  there  are  faint  horizontal  stripings  on  the 
legs. 

Another  very  distinctive  feature,  well  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  the  short, 
stiff  hair  on  the  upper  portion  of  the  tail,  of  buff  or  dun  color,  traversed 
by  the  vertical  stripe.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the  short, 
smooth  and  rather  handsome  coat  of  these  animals  in  summer  and 
the  rough,  shaggy  coat  of  the  winter,  when  a  long  beard  appears  be- 
neath the  jaws. 


Fifi.  1.  HERD  OF  PRZEWALSKY  WILD  HORSES  IN  ZOOLOGICAL  PARK 

The  original  stallion  and  mare  to  the  left.     The  small  colt,  born  June  8, 1912,  is  of 
uniform  buff  color  with  a  woolly  coat.     Photographed  June  20,  1912 

These  animals  were  formerly  widely  spread  over  Europe,  between 
twenty  and  twenty-five  thousand  years  ago.  During  the  Ice  Age,  they 
were  among  the  favorite  subjects  of  the  cave  men,  who  represented 
them  with  extraordinary  fidelity  as  to  all  the  features  we  have  men- 
tioned, on  the  walls  of  the  caves  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  of  Dorgogne  and 
northwestern  Spain.  Not  one  of  these  drawings  shows  a  forelock, 

[31] 


and  it  is  remarkable  how  those 
prehistoric  artists  portrayed 
the  rather  dull  eyes  in  con- 
trast with  the  fierce  expres- 
sion they  gave  the  eyes  of 
the  bison. 

The  general  dun  or  light- 
brownish  color  of  the  Prze- 
walsky  horses  conforms  to 
their  semi-desert  environ- 
ment, rendering  them  less 
conspicuous,  like  the  now 


FIG.  2.    THE  KIANG,  OR  WILD  ASS 
OF  THIBET 


extinct  quagga  of  the   Zebra    From  photograph  by  the  Duchess  of  Bedford. 

c         • !  i  •    ,     f  i  made  in  Woburn  Park 

family,   which  formerly 

roamed  the  open  plains  south 
of  the  Limpopo  River  in  the 
Transvaal,  South  Africa. 

But  the  closest  imitation  of 
the  wild  horse  is  in  the  wild 
ass  (Fig.  2)  from  the  Trans- 
Baikal  of  Asia,  known  as  the 
Kiang,  a  specimen  of  which 
was  presented  to  the  Society 
by  His  Grace  the  Duke  of 
Bedford.  The  light  under- 
color of  the  belly  of  the  wild 
horse  is  also  seen  in  the  wild 
ass  of  Southern  Asia  (Fig.  3) 
which  has  a  much  lighter 
color  scheme  than  that  of  the 
Its  limbs  are 
of  being 


FIG.  3.    THE  PERSIAN  WILD  ASS 
Equus  hemippux 

Uniform  Isabella,  or  fawn  color,  with  dark 
dorsal  stripe,  light  colored  and  slender  limbs, 
light  under  color  and  dark  erect  mane.  This  Przewalsky. 
animal  differs  from  the  Abyssinian  ass,  the 
progenitor  of  the  domesticated  asses,  in  the 
absence  of  the  shoulder  stripes.  dark.  It  shows,  too,  the  dark, 

[  32  ] 


FIG.  4.     THE  PRINCE  OF  THE  ZEBRA  FAMILY,  Equus  grevyi 
From  photograph  by  Sanborn,  in  the  Zoological  Park 

erect  mane  and  black  stripe  down  the  back.  In  fact,  this  black  stripe 
down  the  back  so  well  shown  also  in  the  back  view  of  the  Grevy 
Zebra  (Fig.  5),  is  the  most  universal  of  all  the  color  markings  in  the 
family  of  horses. 

It  is  difficult  to  conjecture  what  advantage  this  dark  brown  or  black 
line  brings  to  the  animal.  In  all  the  accompanying  photographs  it 
appears  to  shade  off  into  the  background. 

The  very  brilliant  dark-brown  stripes  of  the  Grevy  zebra,  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  certainly  tend  to  make  the  animal  very  conspicuous  as  seen  in 
its  yard;  but  from  certain  points  of  view,  such  as  that  of  Fig.  4,  where 
the  sunshine  glances  off  the  glistening  hair,  the  white  and  brown  stripes 
on  certain  regions  of  the  body  entirely  disappear.  Those  who  strongly 
believe  in  the  color  protection  theory  truly  point  out  that  in  certain  sur- 
roundings this  most  brilliantly  marked  of  all  the  mammalia  almost 


disappears  from  human  vision.  I  myself  have  seen  a  small  herd  of 
Grevy  Zebras  standing  under  a  tree  in  the  Duke  of  Bedford's  Park, 
Woburn  Abbey,  with  the  sunshine  glistening  down  on  them  against  a 
light  background,  become  almost  invisible.  The  vanishing  effect  is 
only  transitory,  however,  and  from  other  points  of  view  they  again  be- 
come conspicuous. 

The  Grevy  is  readily  distinguished  as  the  largest  of  the  zebras.  It  is 
characterized  by  delicate  striping,  a  very  long  head,  and  very  large, 

rounded  ears,  like  those  of 
many  other  forest-loving  ani- 
mals. Its  narrow  striping 
contrasts  very  strongly  with 
the  broad  and  brilliant  stripes 
of  the  Grant  zebra,  which, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  so  com- 
pletely surround  the  body 
that  they  unite  with  a  black 
line  extending  along  the  under 
surface  of  the  belly.  Grant's 
zebra,  like  the  Grevy,  has  a 
very  conspicuous  set  of  hori- 
zontal stripes  extending  down 
the  legs  to  the  hoofs,  and  is 
thus  readily  distinguished 
from  the  Chapman  zebra  in 
which  the  lower  portion  of 
the  leg  is  quite  pale. 

The  Grant  Zebra  is  typical  of  a  very  large  group  entirely  distinct 
from  the  Grevy  and  Mountain  zebras.  It  is  broadly  known  as  the 
Burchell  group,  the  type  of  which  was  the  zebra  found  and  described  by 
the  English  explorer  Burchell  north  of  the  Orange  River,  which  roamed 
north  of  that  stream  as  the  Quagga  roamed  to  the  south.  In  the 
typical  Burchell  zebra  (E.  burchelli,  now  believed  to  be  almost  extinct) 

[34] 


FKS.  .->.     THE  GREVY  ZEBRA,  FROM 
ABYSSINIA 

Distinguished  by  sharply  defined  and  very 
numerous  narrow  white,  and  dark  chocolate 
stripes,  and  by  a  very  heavy  dorsal  stripe 
which  is  continued  down  the  center  of  the  tail. 


FIG.  6.    THE  ACCLIMATIZATION  OF  THE  GRANT  ZEBKA,  J0gfMM* 

Mare,  and  foal  born  July  17,  1911.  The  mare  shows  the  black  muzzle,  dia- 
mond shaped  pattern  of  the  star  on  the  forehead,  black,  erect  mane,  which  extends 
back  into  the  thin  dorsal  stripe  and  broad  gridiron  over  the  hips.  The  slender 
limbs  of  the  zebra  colt  have  nearly  the  same  length  as  the  limbs  of  the  mother, 
although  the  body  is  very  much  shorter.  This  enables  the  colt  to  keep  pace  with 
its  mother  in  escaping  the  attacks  of  the  lion,  the  chief  enemy  of  the  Grant  zebra. 
From  photograph  by  Sanborn,  in  the  Zoological  Park 

the  entire  legs  are  devoid  of  stripes,  so  that  the  zebras  of  the  Burchell 
group  from  the  Grant  zebra  on  the  extreme  north  of  British  East 
Africa  to  the  extinct  Quagga  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  region,  once 
presented  a  complete  color  transition  from  the  universal  striping  in 
the  North  to  striping  confined  to  the  shoulders  and  anterior  portion  of 
the  trunk  in  the  Quagga  of  the  South.  This  fading  out  of  the  stripes, 
which  affords  a  color  transition  between  these  brilliantly  marked 
animals  and  the  apparently  monotonous  color  of  the  Przewalsky  horse, 
affords  strong  ground  for  believing  that  all  the  horses  were  originally 

[35] 


FIG.  7.     THE  EXTREMELY  RARE  MOUNTAIN  ZEBRA,  Eqmts  zebra 


striped.  This  belief  is  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  reversional 
striping  occurs  in  all  the  dun  colored  horses  on  the  face,  the  limbs,  and 
the  shoulders,  while  the  medium  back  stripe  is  found  in  the  duns,  bays 
and  browns  among  the  horses. 

The  Mountain  Zebra  (Fig.  7)  is  the  rarest  animal  in  our  entire  col- 
lection, because  it  is  now  extinct  throughout  a  large  part  of  its  former 
range  and  is  carefully  protected  by  the  South  African  government  in 
its  remaining  mountain  fastnesses.  Like  the  Grant  zebra,  its  color 
bands  are  very  broad  and  comparatively  few  in  number,  but  it  possesses 
a  broad  gridiron  of  transverse  stripes  over  the  hips,  which  is  only 
partially  developed  in  the  Grant.  Other  characteristic  features  are  its 
short  head,  very  long  ears,  the  distinct  lap  or  loose  fold  in  the  under 


skin  of  the  neck,  and  the  very  short,  heavily-built  limbs  which  adapt  it 
to  its  mountain  habitat. 

The  call  of  the  Mountain  Zebra  is  between  that  of  the  horse  and  the 
ass,  and  usually  consists  of  three  short,  barking  whinnies  in  quick  suc- 
cession. The  note  is  uttered  with  great  gusto,  and  the  position  as- 
sumed during  the  call  is  more  like  that  of  a  horse  than  of  the  ass,  which 
while  braying  stands  quietly  with  the  head  up  and  the  ears  pricked 
forward.  The  disposition  of  the  Mountain  Zebra  is  generally  vicious, 
whereas  the  Grant  zebra  is  much  more  docile  and  capable  of  domesti- 
cation. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  although  the  zebras  were  well  known 
to  the  Romans,  this  true  or  Mountain  Zebra  was  the  first  of  this  group 
to  be  described  by  Linnaeus,  as  Equus  zebra,  from  the  figure  in  Edward's 
"  Gleanings  of  Natural  History. "  The  Grevy  zebra  on  the  other  hand, 
occupying  the  heart  of  Abyssinia,  was  the  last  of  this  great  group  to  be 
discovered,  not  having  been  made  known  to  science  until  1882,  when  a 
specimen  was  presented  to  President  Grevy  of  the  French  Republic,  in 
whose  honor  the  new  species  was  named. 


FINIS 


[37] 


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